The use of well water for cannabis cultivation, in comparison to other water sources, presents both potential threats and benefits for in stream flow. In upper reaches of small watersheds, streams are dependent throughout the summer months on subsurface water flows from the landscape into the stream. Well water extraction may reduce cold water inputs — limiting stream flow or, in extreme conditions, dewatering stream channels . The extent to which use of subsurface water affects stream flow and water temperature depends on the degree to which well water sources are hydrologically connected to streams. When wells are shallower and closer to streams, and when soil conductivity is greater, subsurface water pumping is more likely to directly capture stream flow. However, if wells are less hydrologically connected to streams, the effects of extraction will be attenuated, resulting in smaller-magnitude and temporally lagged stream flow depletions. With sufficient groundwater recharge in wet months, well water extractions may affect stream flow less than surface water diversions, which were previously assumed to be cannabis cultivators’ predominant means of obtaining water in the region.Such an analysis would incorporate information on well locations and depths and would consider the underlying geology and soil properties at cultivation sites . Meanwhile, the prevalence and distribution of wells relative to other water sources are influenced by broader geospatial characteristics such as topography and precipitation patterns. Understanding these issues will also be important for assessing the threats and benefits associated with subsurface water extraction.
Variation between counties in well extraction patterns demonstrates that, although subsurface water may be the most common source of water in North Coast cannabis cultivation, the availability of alternative sources may play an important role. Humboldt County watersheds included in this study consistently receive more average annual precipitation than do those in Trinity , Mendocino and Sonoma counties . This difference translates into more available surface and spring water in Humboldt County over the course of the growing season. The observation that fewer sites in Humboldt County report well use, microgreen rack for sale compared to other counties in the study, suggests that if surface or spring water is available, cultivators are likely to use it. Conversely, the potential necessity of groundwater use in counties that receive less rainfall holds particular importance in consideration of emerging areas of industry growth throughout California. Further analysis is needed to understand how likely cultivators are to rely on wells if other sources of water are available to them. The winter preceding the 2017 growing season was the wettest on record. It is important to understand how cultivators may source their water during years in which summer water availability is not as abundant. These findings suggest that cultivators may utilize wells both as insurance against surface water scarcity in the summer drought months and as a means of achieving regulatory compliance. The observation that nearly one-third of non-compliant sites reported well extraction indicates that use of subsurface water may be a common means to avoid water scarcity in the late growing season. While Northern California receives considerable seasonal rainfall, there is also significant spatial variability in rainfall totals and in corresponding summer flow persistence of small streams . Considering the ephemeral nature of surface water in many areas , the increasing frequency of drought due to climate change and cannabis cultivation’s consistent demand for irrigation water as crops near harvest , cultivators are strongly motivated to secure reliable water sources for the entirety of the growing season. Therefore, it is likely that water extraction from wells is a common practice for cultivators, beyond those seeking participation in the regulated industry .
Although cannabis regulations place no explicit restrictions on where water is sourced, those currently within or seeking to join the regulated cannabis industry will be subject to a restriction on diversions of spring and surface water during the growing season . This requirement is already in place for permits issued by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife and will also be enforced by the State Water Resources Control Board beginning in 2019. The data provided in this study indicates that, in order to meet the forbearance period requirement, cultivators may be more inclined to drill a well to achieve compliance than to develop water storage for spring and surface water. Determining cultivators’ capability to store the water they need for the growing season may shed further light on the likelihood that growers will seek subsurface water. If compliance necessitates drilling a well, it will be important to account for the impacts of this potential shift in cultivation practices. Successful protection of freshwater resources in Northern California will require a more complete accounting of where cannabis cultivators source their water and the amount and timing of water extracted . Study of cannabis as an agricultural crop has been notoriously inadequate, but data provided by the water quality control board’s cannabis program offers critical new insights into the water use practices of cultivators entering the regulated industry. In this initial analysis, we found that subsurface water may be much more commonly used in cannabis cultivation than previously supposed. Further analyses of cannabis cultivation’s water extraction demand, as well as of geospatial variation in water demand, may help elaborate the ramifications of this finding. Ultimately, a better understanding of cannabis cultivation’s water demand will be useful for placing the cannabis industry in the greater context of all water allocation needs in the North Coast and throughout California.People living with HIV and those at increased risk for HIV are at high risk for other health problems, including substance use, mental health issues, and socioeconomic vulnerabilities.The COVID-19 pandemic and resulting efforts to curb the spread of infection—such as stay-at-home orders and physical distancing mandates—and the resulting social isolation are likely to exacerbate these issues.
A survey of young adults in the USA found that immediately following the declaration of a state of emergency due to COVID-19, levels of depression and anxiety increased with high levels of loneliness and COVID- 19-specific worry being associated with higher levels of depression and anxiety. Factors found to be associated with pandemic-related depression and anxiety include being younger, being a racial/ethnic minority, or being diagnosed with a chronic disease.The pandemic-related increases in mental health issues may also extend to substance misuse. Prior studies of disasters, including the aftermath of the 2003 severe acute respiratory syndrome epidemic, found increased rates of substance use. Emerging data related to the COVID-19 pandemic seem to corroborate these findings, with one study noting a “surge of addictive behaviors” including food, shopping, and increased reported use of cannabis, methamphetamine, and opioids. Studies that specifically focused on men who have sex with men —including both those who were HIVpositive and at increased risk for HIV—found that changes in substance use and mental health were also associated with behaviors that not only increased the risk for SARS-CoV-2 infection—the virus causing COVID-19—but also had implications in terms of STI/HIV transmission.For instance, one study found that those who had sex with casual partners during pandemic restrictions were more likely to report using substances including alcohol as compared to those who avoided interactions with casual sex partners. Engagement in ongoing health care and prevention is especially critical to the health of vulnerable populations living at the intersection of multiple colliding epidemics of COVID-19, substance use, mental health, and HIV. In order to reduce the potential for SARS-CoV-2 transmission, many clinics stopped in person clinical encounters and switched to telehealth visits starting in March 2020. While telehealth outcomes in general — including among those who live with HIV — have been largely positive, telehealth has the potential to miss the most high needs and socioeconomically vulnerable patients.Beyond limited access to technology requirements for telehealth visits including a cell phone or computer and Internet connectivity , privacy concerns and the absence of confidential surroundings may also be an issue. In fact, one study found that even with an intervention to improve telehealth attendance, access to virtual medical care was still challenging among people living with HIV who were experiencing homelessness.Therefore, cannabis grow facility layout the objective of this study was to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on substance use, changes in mental health, and interruptions in mental health care among HIV-positive and high-risk HIVnegative men. Specifcally, we focus on cannabis use given the high prevalence of use, ease of access, and its use as the substance of choice to manage negative affect including anxiety and depression.
We describe the prevalence and correlates of interruptions in mental healthcare as well as factors associated with cannabis use for COVID-19 related anxiety and depression. We compare those who report interruptions in mental health care to those who did not experience these interruptions and hypothesize that those experiencing interruptions in mental health care will experience increases in depression and anxiety and will also report other negative health behaviors, including increased substance use and increases in sexual risk behaviors.Data for this study were based on those collected from participants in the mSTUDY — a National Institutes of Health /National Institute on Drug Abuse funded cohort of racial/ethnically diverse, HIV-positive, and high-risk HIV-negative MSM. Details of the mSTUDY have been previously described,but briefy, participants were recruited from two study sites in Los Angeles, CA, including a community-based organization providing services for the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender community and a community-based university research clinic. Study enrollment started in August 2014, and cohort participation is ongoing. Eligible participants were between 18 and 45 years of age at the time of enrollment, identifed as male at birth, if HIV-negative, reported condomless anal intercourse with a male partner in the past 6 months, were capable of providing informed consent, and were willing and able to return to the study site every 6 months to complete study-related activities. By design, half of the participants were living with HIV, and half were substance using. Following the COVID-19 pandemic “stay-at-home order” in California, all in-person research activities were stopped on March 13, 2020, and remote study visits were launched starting March 31, 2020. For this analysis, we included all participant remote study visit data collected from March 31, 2020, through August 30, 2021 .The Institutional Review Board at the University of California Los Angeles approved the study, and all participants provided written informed consent prior to study participation. During in-person study visits, which occur every 6 months, participants complete a self-administered, computer-assisted survey and provide biological specimen for HIV testing . During the remote visits included as part of this analysis, no biological samples were collected. HIV status was based on testing done at the previous follow-up visit, which occurred 6 to 8 months prior for most respondents. Participants were sent an electronic link to the study questionnaire for each remote study visit, which was comparable to the survey used as part of the in-person study visits and included additional questions related to the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to sociodemographic characteristics, the questionnaire collected information on current substance use, mental health, sexual risk behaviors, and COVID-19 experiences and the impact of the pandemic on overall health and well-being.The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has been vast in terms of who has been impacted and broad in terms of how people have been affected. Our findings highlight the experiences of those living at the intersection of multiple colliding epidemics and vulnerabilities, including COVID-19, substance use, mental health, and HIV. In particular, our results indicate increases in symptoms of depression and anxiety with the highest levels noted in the most immediate time frame following the COVID-19 pandemic and a reversion to pre-pandemic levels within 17 months of follow-up. Our results also indicate changes in substance use linked directly to experiences resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, with a high proportion of participants reporting cannabis use to cope with their heightened anxiety and depression. Furthermore, we find that interruptions in care due to the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly interruptions in mental health care, can link with negative outcomes along substance use and STI/HIV risk and underscore the intersectional vulnerabilities experienced by these individuals.