While all organic matter is originally derived from plant tissues, animals , and animal manures are a secondary and valuable source of organic matter. The decomposed remains of microorganisms can contribute up to 20% of the total organic matter content of biologically active soils. Green manures, crop residues and weeds, as well as intentional grass/legume cover crops incorporated into soils on a regular basis serve as fundamental building blocks of organic matter and plant nutrition . Organic matter is a major force in the formation and stabilization of granular or crumb structure of soil aggregates . When organic matter is added to a soil via cultivation, the plant residues cement or bind soil particles together as a result of gels, gums, and glues that are byproducts of decomposition. Mycelial strands or webs of fungi also bind soil particles together.The Parisian market gardens for which the practice was originally named were small plots of land that were deeply and attentively cultivated by French gardeners, or “maraîchers.” The “marais” system, as it is known in French, was formed in part as a response to the increasing urbanization of Paris, the attendant increase in the cost of urban land, and the ready availability of horse manure as a fertility source. English master gardener Alan Chadwick popularized both the term and the gardening method in the U.S. when he introduced them at UC Santa Cruz’s Student Garden Project in 1967, and they have served as the theoretical foundation supporting the cultivation methods used at the UCSC Farm & Garden ever since. But as Chadwick was quick to point out, cannabis indoor growing other societies were using similar practices far earlier than the Parisian market gardeners. He acknowledged the influence of early Chinese, Greek, and Roman agriculture specifically, on the development of the French-intensive method.
The concept of small farms dedicated to intensive cultivation of the land, improved soil fertility, water conservation, and closed-loop systems was a feature common to many early civilizations and, in fact, characterizes the majority of agriculture today in developing countries where these techniques have been passed down to successive generations. Of the world’s 525 million farms, approximately 85% are fewer than 4 acres in size, tended to mostly by poor farmers in China, India, and Africa,1 where methods often reflect the same philosophies of stewardship and cultivation that inform the French intensive method we use today. And in much of the developing world, locally adapted traditions continue to shape the way agriculture is practiced. This supplement examines some of the methods used by farmers around the world, past and present, reflecting the principles on which the French-intensive method is based.In Japan, compost production has been tied to small-scale farming for centuries. Farmers harvested herbaceous growth from nearby hillsides as a source of compost material. Compost houses were built and filled with this herbage, manure, and soil daily until piles reached five feet high. Water was constantly added to ensure saturation. Once the designated height was reached farmers let the piles sit five weeks in summer and seven weeks in winter before turning them to the other side of the house. The compost was then applied to dryland cereal crops in spring. A study conducted in the early 20th century found that nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium were replenished by this composting system nearly at the level lost through harvest.2Vegetable growers on California’s Central Coast rely on draw bar-pulled offset wheel discs, often with a ring roller run behind, as a primary means of tillage. The disc/ring roller combination quickly and efficiently mixes crop residue with the soil and effectively knocks down and incorporates weeds that have emerged in non-cropped open fields.
One advantage of discing is the speed at which ground can be covered. For example, an 8-foot wide offset disc running at the optimum 4 miles per hour can easily cover an acre in 20 minutes. However, for small farms, discing with a drawbar-pulled offset wheel disc can be challenging, as it is difficult to disc small plots of ground effectively. Discs don’t corner well and require significant space to turn. They move soil around in a field , necessitating either the use of a land plane or wheel scraper to cut high spots and fill low spots left by the disc. In small plot situations where cover crop residue is not excessive, flail-mowed cover crop residue can be effectively incorporated with a three-point rototiller behind a small tractor. Multiple passes with a three point off-set or tandem disc will also work to incorporate moderate amounts of cover crop residue, but these implements tend to be light and will require more passes compared to the heavier offset wheel discs. Notched blades on a three-point disc will greatly enhance its ability to work deeper and cut through heavy residue. One of the most important considerations when pulling a draw bar-hitched offset wheel disc is the need to disc in a “pattern” . Drawbar-pulled offset discs can only be turned to the left. Turning the disc to the right when it is soil engaged will result in serious damage to the disc frame or the discs themselves. This is very important to understand. While running through the field the front gang of discs throws soil to the right and the second gang throws the soil back to the left . The back gang leaves what is referred to as a “dead furrow.” The second pass of the disc will cover this dead furrow and leave a new one on the right side of the disc. Follow the last pass on the right side to minimize the number of dead furrows in the field. As an example, when discing a one-acre plot, it is important to disc in a pattern that allows you to make left turns only and follow your last pass on the right side.
If done correctly the field would have a dead furrow down the middle and along each of the two sides. It is always advantageous to cross disc either on a diagonal or perpendicular to your last pass. It is not uncommon to disc a field multiple times to get the desired mixing and tilth. Optimum soil moisture for discing is just moist enough that you don’t raise a huge dust cloud. On soils prone to compaction, discing when soil moisture is too high can be extremely detrimental to soil tilth—the soil should never be so wet that the soil sticks to the discs. Note that there are many different configurations for offset discs but they all have two disc gangs that are diagonally opposed. Many of the small offset discs are set up on a three-point hitch, but their light weight limits their usefulness.On most soil types, deeper tillage is best done in the fall at the end of the cropping season when the soil is relatively dry prior to the onset of fall rains so that the compacted layers “fracture” effectively. Deep ripping is critical on some soils to improve water infiltration and break up compacted layers formed from prior shallower tillage. Ripping is usually followed by discing to break up clods brought to the surface from the ripping. A ring roller running behind the disc should be used to break clods and push small clods into the soil so that they will more easily take in and hold moisture from irrigation or rainfall. Ripping typically involves two passes, with the second pass done diagonally to the first pass. This second pass allows the ripper to penetrate deeper, allows for a more complete “shatter” of the sub soil, cannabis grow kit and is much easier on the tractor operator than a perpendicular pass since the tractor will rock from side to side rather that slam up and down as it goes over the soil indents left from the first pass. Ripping is a slow, energy intensive and tedious task and requires excellent traction.Once you know the center-to-center spacing of your rear tires then all bed forming implements must be set to this spacing. All other “in-row” implements used following the initial bed shaping must also match this spacing . Most small farms are thus either on a 48” or 60” bed spacing. These spacings dictate either a single 48”- or 60”-wide bed, or two 24”- or 30”-wide beds . Another critical consideration when setting up bed spacings is tire width. If possible, tires should not be any wider than 12 inches for vegetable farming if you plan on getting into the field to perform in row operations after beds have been formed. Wider rear tires will take up critical production space. Also note that most lower-horsepower 4-wheel drive tractors have poor clearance for “in-row” work. The basic limitation with poor clearance is that final cultivations on taller crops must be done much earlier, since crop height will dictate timing. This limitation could impact weed management options.The greenhouses, growing containers, and growing media needed to grow healthy transplants are not only costly, adding to the already high initial capital investment required to begin a farming operation, but also use large quantities of non-renewable resources. As input costs and impacts continue to rise worldwide, farmers need to find alternative sources of energy and inputs to support their plant’s growing needs. Although many of the costs related to farming that make it financially risky are fixed or inelastic, meaning they are difficult to change , there are some that can be minimized. Without easy access to government-subsidized credit, it is essential that organic farmers minimize costs wherever possible to make their operation economically viable. Likewise, in urban areas where fixed costs may be even higher and access to raw materials and farmer know-how is limited, low-cost alternatives to traditional greenhouse propagation that include doit-yourself options can mean the difference between success and struggle, and often provide more environmentally sustainable and socially just solutions.
Here are a few options for greenhouse propagation that reduce the costs, and in turn the barriers, to starting a farm or market garden.Seed saving not only reduces the cost of propagation, it provides adaptive on-farm benefits and preserves genetic diversity. Saving seed also embodies the philosophy of sustainability that guides agroecological farming. Seed costs, while not the largest operating expense on a farm, can be significant, especially when the cost of cover crop seed is factored in. Additionally, there is a price differential between conventional and organic seed—and organic seed for a number of varieties isn’t always available, even from commercial organic seed companies. Seed saving requires some botany and ecology knowledge to preserve varietal integrity. It also requires additional in-ground time commitment for most crops as well as the labor to harvest, process/ clean saved seed. As discussed in Supplement 1 in Unit 1.4, by saving seed you can select for plants adapted to local climate and soil features, and maintains genetic diversity in an era when genetic engineering and hybrid technology threaten crop diversity worldwide. By saving seed, farmers can lower overall operating costs as well as supply the farm with its own organic, locally adapted seed. Seed saving can be a central part of developing a closed-loop system, minimizing external dependence and enhancing the process of community seed sovereignty. These benefits and challenges should be carefully weighed against the cost and convenience of buying seed from existing sources.The greenhouse is by far the largest propagation related investment for a farmer. Most commercial greenhouses are expensive to buy or have built, and often maximize only the sun’s light energy while relying on fossil fuels in the form of electrically powered vents, fans, lights, heating tables, and thermostats to moderate heat. Passive solar greenhouses, on the other hand, are designed to maximize use of the sun’s light and heat energy with little to no reliance on other sources of energy to control temperature or air circulation. Passive solar heating relies on maximizing sunlight during the day and then storing the trapped heat overnight using a thermal mass, usually large drums of water, blocks of stone, or gravel beds, within the greenhouse. Besides their use of “free” energy from the sun, passive solar greenhouses are relatively inexpensive to build when compared to commercial greenhouses and can be built by someone without extensive construction experience. Building a greenhouse independently not only reduces one of the few variable capital costs in starting a farm, but also allows the farmer to customize the design for her/his specific location, climate, and production goals.