Longitudinal research with diverse groups of youth is needed, including multi-ethnic youth, so we can examine how use in middle school and high school may affect functioning in high school. Fourth, most studies that examine how trajectories affect outcomes tend to focus on one outcome, such as mental health or academic achievement. It is important to assess several different domains, such as academics, physical and mental health, social functioning, and behavior as findings could shed light on what domains may be most affected during this important developmental period, which could help inform prevention efforts. Most importantly, these studies do not typically address potential disparities in functioning that may occur given the same rates of use during this time period. One cross sectional study found that Latino high school aged youth who reported drinking also reported a higher likelihood of getting into trouble with the police compared to White and Asian youth who drank alcohol . The current study moves the field forward significantly in this area by a) testing slope and intercept differences for AM use by race/ethnicity to determine whether differences exist in probability of use and rate of change in probability of use, b) testing whether the intercept and slope of probability of AM use from age 11 to 16 predict outcomes across several key domains of functioning at age 17, and c) adjusting for level of AM use and comparing outcomes for White, Black, Hispanic, Asian and multi-ethnic youth to understand whether functioning in high school differs for these groups after controlling for AM use.The current study moves the field forward in the area of trajectory research by examining how AM use among a diverse sample of youth across this developmental period affects functioning for a variety of domains, pipp grow racks including physical and mental health, academics, social functioning, and behavior.
In addition, we assessed whether there were racial/ethnic differences in functioning for White, Black, Hispanic, Asian and multi-ethnic youth after controlling for level of AM use. Similar to previous work in this area , Asian youth reported less alcohol and marijuana use than White youth, and Black and multi-ethnic youth reported less alcohol than White youth. Furthermore, the rate of increase in the probability of drinking and marijuana use for Whites during adolescence was greater than the rate of increase in the probability for Hispanics, which corresponds with recent research on the Add Health data set . Thus, White youth continue to be at higher risk for substance use during middle school and high school. Marijuana and alcohol use both affected functioning in high school; however, marijuana use was associated with poorer functioning across more domains. Specifically, youth who had a higher probability of marijuana use also reported lower academic functioning, were less prepared for school, engaged in more delinquent behavior and had poorer mental health. In addition, delinquent behavior in high school was more likely among youth who showed a greater increase in their probability of marijuana use from middle school to high school. These findings are important because teen marijuana use is rising across the United States . In addition, many youth tend to think that alcohol use has more consequences than marijuana use and therefore view marijuana use as “safer” than drinking , which may be due, in part, to changing views of marijuana use that have occurred due to changing marijuana policies . Prevention efforts must begin to address these changing views by educating youth about marijuana’s effects and how although marijuana may help with certain ailments, larger clinical trials with more varied groups of patients are needed .
In addition, youth need to understand the potential harms of this drug such as its potential effect on their developing brain and how it can affect performance in both adolescence and adulthood . Similar to marijuana use, delinquent behavior and academic unpreparedness in high school were more likely among youth who showed a greater increase in their probability of alcohol use from middle school to high school. These youth also reported higher social functioning in high school. Of note, some items on the social functioning measure focused on acceptance and popularity . Alcohol use is often driven by social motives , and youth who view themselves as more popular tend to report heavier drinking . This is in contrast to youth who report use of other drugs, such as prescription drug use; these youth view themselves as less popular and therefore report lower social functioning . Thus, it may be that during this time period drinking is associated with being more social, and feeling more accepted and popular. Tucker and colleagues suggest that more work is needed in this area to gain a clearer understanding of why adolescents with a larger number of school-based friendship ties are more likely to drink . When we examined functioning in high school by race/ethnicity while controlling for level of AM use, we found differences in academic functioning and physical health. Specifically,Asian youth and multi-ethnic youth reported more problems with physical health than White youth when using at the same level; Asian, Black and Hispanic youth reported being less prepared academically, and Hispanic and multi-ethnic youth reported lower academic performance compared to White youth. The difference that showed up most frequently was in regards to academic performance, which is developmentally applicable given that most youth are still in school and this may be one of the first domains to show problems due to AM use. However, Asian and multi-ethnic youth also reported poorer physical health even when controlling for level of AM use, which is something that has been shown in adult populations.
Thus, it is crucial to address AM use early on for non-White youth, especially in light of findings, perhaps by increasing protective factors such as parental support , enhancing culture , or improving resistance skills . The current study is limited by the nature of the survey data being self-report; however, AM data from these youth have matched AM self-reported data from national surveys . We had larger samples of White, Asian, Hispanic and youth of mixed ethnicity compared to Black youth, yet we still found statistically significant differences for Black youth compared to White youth. Finally, we were unable to recontact many youth as they transitioned from middle school to high school; however, youth that completed the survey at wave 6 in high school did not differ demographically or on their AM use compared to those who did not complete the survey. In addition, we retained most of the sample once in high school, from wave 6 to wave 7, which occurred one year later. In sum, findings suggest that during adolescence, non-White youth who report similar likelihood of AM use as White youth also report worse outcomes across several domains. One explanation for our findings is that similar levels of AM use affect diverse groups differently, and may be more problematic for non-white groups of youth. Thus, intervention programs that target AM use during this developmental period among those at-risk for negative outcomes might be one viable approach to ameliorating disparities in functioning. However, there are other preexisting factors that we did not include in the current study that could have potentially contributed to either AM use or lower functioning during this time period, such as discrimination, parental involvement, or neighborhood quality. In addition, pipp drying racks although we did not find differences on demographics or AM use between those youth who dropped out of the study and those who continued to complete surveys, they could have differed on characteristics that we were unable to measure. Future work must continue to survey diverse groups of youth longitudinally and measure a variety of factors so that we can obtain a clearer understanding of how functioning may be affected by AM use during adolescence and emerging young adulthood and whether disparities in functioning may differ across different developmental milestones.Marijuana has been criminalized since the late 1920’s due to a plan orchestrated by the Bureau of Narcotics , which aimed to restrict its importation, consumption, and sale. This focused effort resulted in the plant fading from the spotlight until the early 1960’s, when its popularity began to soar. Today, four states and the District of Columbia have legalized recreational marijuana use and nineteen additional states have passed laws that permit the use of medical marijuana. Although permitted in some form in these twenty three states, it is still a violation of Federal law to possess marijuana, due to its classification as a Schedule I drug under the Controlled Substances Act. Despite its classification, marijuana’s increasing popularity, combined with an increasing demand for legalization, calls for an examination of why the plant is illegal in the first place. The purpose of this paper is to examine the validity of these arguments, as well as provide possible solutions to the complex issue of legalization.
Many anti-marijuana groups, such as American Society of Addiction Medicine , National Association of Drug Court Professionals , Citizens Against Legalizing Marijuana , Smart Approaches to Marijuana , Parents Opposed to Pot , and National Families in Action , and many more, argue that the legalization of recreational marijuana will lead to easier access and increased use among minors. A study published in October 2014 in the Journal of Adolescent health found that marijuana use does not increase. The study was conducted by Choo, Benz, Zaller, Warren, Rising, and McConnel who looked at a population sample of 11,703,100 students between 1991 and 2011; the students were varying ages, but they all resided in states that had medical marijuana legalization laws. They found past-month marijuana consumption was common , but there was no significant statistical differences in use before and after marijuana policy changes for any state. Choo et. al. also did not find any overall increased probability of marijuana consumption related to the policy change in the regression analysis. Even though this study examines medical marijuana, the concern of minors having access to the plant is very limited. In a state where getting a medical marijuana card is fairly easy for anyone twenty-one and older, minors will turn to previous connections for the drug instead of asking from older siblings, relatives, etc. The real concern comes from the mentality among youth that marijuana is a safe drug to consume, which is not the case for developing minds . A study conducted by Loyola Medicine says that early use can lead to lifelong addiction and damaging developmental changes such as impaired thinking, increased likelihood of dropping out of school, and poor educational outcomes . Whether it is medical or recreational marijuana, there is a solution to youth consumption. Educational talks about the impactof marijuana on developing brains need to be implemented as a result of legalizing recreational marijuana. Like sex education and domestic violence, teaching minors about the consequences of marijuana can have a profound effect. Relating sex education in schools and marijuana prohibition, a study conducted by Kathrin F. StangerHall and David W. Hall found states with abstinence- only programs in public schools have drastically more teenage pregnancy and birth rates than schools with more comprehensive sex education programs. Like marijuana prohibition, minors are more likely to engage in risky behavior the less they are educated about said behavior. The power of education can show middle and high-schoolers the repercussions of marijuana consumption at an early age which can deter the behavior. This a very reasonable concern, especially with the Mexican drug cartels committing horrible acts as a result of the drug war. However, a recent study conducted by Morris, TenEyck, Barnes, and Kovandzic found crime was not exacerbated by the passing of medical marijuana laws in Part I offenses such as rape, homicide, robbery, burglary, assault, auto theft, and larceny. Morris et. al. did find the laws may be correlated with reductions in assault and homicide rates. Additionally, Smith, Homish, Collins, Giovino, White, and Leonard at University of Buffalo sampled 634 couples in their first nine years of marriage who consumed marijuana. They found of the 634 couples tested, the more the couple smoked marijuana, the less likely they were to commit domestic violence acts . The researchers also found the study supports the notion that marijuana does not increase aggressive conflict and it may actually decrease the instances .