Hemp Growing

As noted by Lorenzetti et al. , quantification based on a more general metric is recommended in situations where the individual cannot accurately estimate the quantity of cannabis use. Estimating the number of “hits” per day also provides a metric by which to assess changes over time, which is consistent with the goals of the CEA. Other estimates of test–retest reliability were moderate to high, supporting the temporal stability of the CEA over a one-week span. As such, the CEA may be useful in tracking changes in use over time. While interventions for cannabis misuse have typically emphasized abstinence-only outcomes, controlled use is also a popular treatment goal . Evaluation of the utility of interventions for cannabis use among individuals who do not want to achieve complete abstinence required the ability to measure changes in cannabis engagement over time. Other measures, such as the DFAQ-CU, while showing good preliminary psychometric properties, do not provide detailed information of use within a specified timeframe. The CEA, in contrast, is designed to assess cannabis grow tray use in the preceding 30 days. Comparison of the CEA to other measures also provided support for its utility.

When compared to related factors on the DFAQ-CU, indicators of frequency and quantity of cannabis use on the CEA generally showed small to moderate associations. One exception is daily sessions of edible use, which showed only a weak association to the DFAQ-CU daily sessions factor. However, the daily sessions factor is only comprised of items that assess sessions of concentrate and dry product use. Therefore, it is unsurprising that sessions of edible use were unrelated to this factor. Overall, the pattern of results suggests that the CEA assesses related, but not identical, aspects of cannabis engagement as compared to the DFAQ-CU. Estimates of frequency generally showed stronger associations with the CUDIT-R than measures of other less directly related constructs. Moderate correlations were generally observed between the CUDIT-R and indicators of cannabis use frequency and quantity. The AUDIT-C showed smaller associations with these same measures, supporting the CEA’s divergent validity. Overall, the CEA shows good psychometric properties which supports its use as a self-report measure of recreational cannabis use in the preceding 30 days. This study has several limitations. First, the number of community participants who agreed to participate in the follow-up interview was small, despite the higher gift card value for participating in the follow-up interview compared to the online survey.

Therefore, test–retest reliability, and the level of agreement between the CEA and TLFB could not be separately examined for the two samples. Second, the study relied on convenience samples.This is not surprising, given the higher prevalence of cannabis use and misuse among males than females in community samples . In contrast, student samples tend to have an overrepresentation of females . Given the observed imbalance within each sample, as well as between the two, it was not possible to assess gender differences. Third, a few CEA variables showed low test–retest reliability. We have therefore eliminated or changed the questions to improve reliability. Lastly,vertical grow systems for sale the study did not include a biological or other objective measure of cannabis use. Future research should also include other methods for assessing cannabis use such as biological measures to further examine the psychometric properties of the CEA.  The prevalence and frequency of cannabis use among pregnant and non-pregnant individuals of reproductive age has increased in recent years .

Cannabis use during pregnancy is associated with potential adverse health effects, and the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology recommends that individuals who are pregnant or contemplating pregnancy discontinue cannabis use . Patterns of substance use tend to develop before pregnancy and nearly all individuals who report using cannabis during pregnancy also report using prior to pregnancy . Surveillance of preconception cannabis use is critical given that nearly half of pregnancies in the US are unplanned , and pregnant individuals are particularly at risk for cannabis use during the first trimester. The legalization of cannabis has led to the proliferation of new cannabis products with various modes of administration  and is associated with greater preconception cannabis use . The likelihood of quitting cannabis use before pregnancy and the potential adverse health effects to infants exposed to cannabis in utero might vary depending on maternal mode or combinations of modes of cannabis administration .

Among the taxa that were increased in the saliva of cannabis smokers, five belonged to the Streptococcusgenus, and four belonged to the Actinomyces genus. Among the taxa that were enriched in the saliva of non-smoking controls, six belonged to the Neisseria genus . No differences were observed based on quantity of cannabis use or presence of neurological disease history between the heavy users  and light users , and between smoked cannabis containing THC and cannabis containing no THC .Nonetheless, the enrichment of A. meyeri was inversely correlated with the age of first cannabis use .To study which taxa may represent the cannabis smoking oralmicrobiome, we reanalyzed and compared the saliva microbiome from tobacco smokers and non-smoker controls from our published data . Consistent with the results from previously published studies, we found increased Streptococcus and decreased Neisseriain the oral microbiome of tobacco smokers compared with those in non-smoking controls , which was similar to cannabis smokers. However, Actinomyces genus was only increased in cannabissmokers but not in tobacco smokers . To further analyze Actinomyces genus bacteria, mobile grow system we have shown four Actinomyces species bacteria that were significantly increased in cannabis smokers .

Only Actinomyces turicensis was increased in tobacco smokers when compared with non-smoker controls . We further analyzed the difference after adjusting for age, sex, and/or alcohol use. All differences between cannabis users and controls identified in the univariate analysis shown in Fig. S1 remained significant after adjusting for sex, age, and alcohol consumption, although P values were attenuated slightly . When comparing tobacco users to controls, only Streptococcus  andA. turicensis , but not Neisseria, remained significant after adjusting for sex and age.The smoking and altered microbiome composition may lead to a compromised mucosal epithelial barrier, which results in the translocation of bacteria or microbial products into circulation. Thus, bacterial fragments or whole bacteria can appear in the blood from translocation and thereby influence the immune system . To study oral microbial translocation in cannabis users, we evaluated the plasma levels of IgG antibody against antigens derived from A. meyeri, A. odontolyticus,and N. elongata. Plasma levels of IgGs against A. meyeri antigenstended to increase in the cannabis smokers compared to controls, while similar levels of IgGs against antigens from the other two bacteria were observed .

These results imply that A. meyeri or its antigens may preferentially translocate from the oral mucosa to the circulation in the setting of an altered oral or periodontal environment in cannabis smokers. In a previous study, oral administration of Campylobacter jejuni activated state of neurons in nucleus tractus solitarius and increased c-Fos expression in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleusas inmice . To determine if cannabis use-associated oral microbiome affects CNS, we inoculated live A. meyeri, A. odontolyticus, and N. elongata into the oral cavity of C57BL/6 mice. A. meyeri and A. odontolyticus are oral commensal bacteria  and were enriched in theoral microbiome of cannabis smokers found in this study. N. elongata,which was enriched in non-smoking controls , mobile vertical rack was used as a control. We examined mouse activity through a uniformly cylindricalarena. The behaviors of mice were quantified and shown by global activity, total distance traveled , average speed , and resting time.

The behavior of N. elongata-treated mice in the arenawas comparable with the PBS-treated mice. However, compared with N. elongata-treated mice, A. meyeri-treated mice exhibited decreases in global activity, distance traveled, and mean speed, as well as increases in resting time .Next, we have evaluated amyloid production in mouse brain tissues as it is a marker of neurodegenerative diseases. Although Ab 40tended to be increased in A. meyeri-treated mice, there was no statistical difference between any two groups . Notably, the Ab 42peptide in the brain from A. meyeri-treated mice was increased significantly compared to the control groups . To validate alterations in oral and gut microbiome, we collected the samples from oralswab and stool one week after the final oral administration of live bacteria. Specific bacteria were quantified using qPCR, and the abundance of each bacterium was normalized by total 16S rDNA. We confirm edoral inoculated bacteria by qPCR . Notably, both A.odontolyticus and N. elongata, but not A. meyeri, presented in the orals wab of some mice from the PBS group, suggesting A. odontolyticus and N. elongata may be oral commensal microbiome in mice .

Since our study examined proportions of nicotine and cannabis vaping among adults who currently used EVPs, it is difficult to compare our results directly to other studies that examine nicotine and cannabis vaping separately at the population level. Nevertheless, our results indicate that an association may exist where adults with lower education have lower odds of vaping nicotine and cannabis, relative to vaping nicotine only, compared to adults with higher education, or that adults with higher education vape a mix of nicotine and cannabis relative to adults with lower education. Cannabis smoking is associated with tobacco cessation difficulty, tobacco use relapse, and increased intensity of tobacco use . If cannabis vaping has a similar effect, it may undermine cessation efforts for adults who use EVPs. The reverse gateway theory posits that cannabis use may encourage tobacco use, especially if routes of administration are similar. However, drivers of cannabis vaping initiation among those who vape nicotine might differ from drivers of nicotine vaping initiation among those who vape cannabis . Adults who use both nicotine and cannabis have reported the heightened subjective effects of cannabis from simultaneous nicotine and cannabis vaping as a primary reason behind co-use .

The extent to which simultaneous nicotine and cannabis vaping varies from simultaneous nicotine and cannabis smoking among adults is not fully understood. Further research is needed to better understand the intersection between cannabis vaping and cannabis smoking, including how mode of cannabis consumption might impact tobacco use outcomes . Nevertheless, grow cannabis the neurobiological effects of cannabis vaping or smoking can complicate the advancement of tobacco regulatory science and may promote nicotine vaping. In 2009, the FDA was granted regulatory authority over tobacco products in the US but does not have direct power over cannabis constituents in e-liquids . Understanding nicotine and cannabis vaping patterns is vital to inform tobacco control researchers of the potential implications related to tobacco regulation and cessation efforts. We acknowledge limitations of our study findings. First, due to how the cannabis vaping measures were assessed in the PATH Study , it is possible that we missed additional exclusive cannabis vapers in this analysis. In addition, this pattern of assessment may be prone to having adults contradict themselves, such as indicating that they ever vape cannabis but “never” in terms of how frequently they vape the substance, making it difficult to infer which use groups they belong to. Second, it difficult to measure the frequency and intensity by which specific substances are consumed in the PATH Study .

While respondents were asked about how often they vaped cannabis when using EVPs, we were unable to quantify frequency of cannabis vaping . Third, cannabis vaping was examined in the context of ever use only, and respondents who currently used EVPs endorsed cannabis vaping may have only vaped cannabis in some period that preceded the past 30 days. Fourth, we simplified the nicotine and cannabis vaping groups in terms of how often they vaped both substances . Nevertheless,indoor cannabis grow system our non-nicotine-exclusive vaping categories represent varying vaping use patterns with important regulatory and health implications. Fifth, nicotine/cannabis vaping categories relied on self-reports and did not include biochemical verification for all respondents . Sixth, due to limited sample sizes, we had to aggregate American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian, and multiracial adults into an NH Other category, and lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults into an LGB+ category.

We were additionally unable to disaggregate Hispanic ethnic identity with the present data, which may mask important differences for ethnic subgroups such as Mexican Americans or Puerto Ricans. Finally, data were collected from late 2016 to early 2018, and results from this study may not represent more recent use patterns, particularly in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite these limitations, our findings demonstrate that the proportion of nicotine and cannabis vaping differs across adult socio-demographic groups, calling for additional work that aims to unveil and address these use disparities. With cannabis vaping on the rise among younger populations , efforts aimed at reducing nicotine and cannabis consumption overall and within high-risk groups are needed, especially those that address vaping as an additional route of administration. Our study also examines patterns of nicotine and cannabis vaping, with important variation by how adults vape each substance. These results are presented compared to adults who vape only nicotine to capture differences by use groups that are less of a focus in the substance use literature, particularly the tobacco control literature.

On the other hand, C. carnea larvae did encounter and even successfully attacked prey on inflorescences, suggesting potential to control P. cannabis populations on flowering medicinal cannabis. The results from the present and previous studies on hairy plants, showed that the morphology of the natural enemy and the type of glandular trichomes are key factors regarding the mobility and predation success of biological control agents . Finally, it is important to note that the very distinct predation strategies exhibited by the larvae of the two predators should also be taken into consideration when interpreting our results. On one hand, the larvae of A. aphidimyza are furtive predators, usually positioned in the center of the aphid colony and thus, they do not have to cover long distances for exploiting their prey . On the other hand, the larvae of C. carnea employ an active searching strategy causing significant disturbance in the aphid colonies and thus they have to cover longer distances for exploiting their prey . Finally, it is important to highlight the fact that females of A. aphidimyza readily oviposited on medicinal cannabis plants infested by P. cannabis. Previous studies tested the oviposition of A. aphidimyza as influenced by plant trichomes and found a higher number of eggs laid on potato  varieties with higher trichome density .

A positive association between the cannabis aphid colony size and the number of eggs laid by female A. aphidimyza has been reported in previous studies with other aphid species on different host plants cannabis drying racks. This result confirms that A. aphidimyza females respond to the cannabis aphid infestations and is reassuring regarding the biocontrol potential of this predator against P. cannabis.  Since ancient times, Cannabis has been extensively utilized by humans for a variety of uses, such as textiles, paper, food, medicine, biofuel or recreational drugs. Cannabis has been an integral part of human life since its domestication and continues into the present . However, research on the uses and applications of this plant significantly decreased and almost ceased in the mid-20th century when the species and its varieties were declared illegal in most Western countries, regardless of the concentrations of psychoactive compounds . Therefore, one of the most ancient crops, long-valued for its multiple uses, became largely ignored during the last 50 years. Thus, compared with other crop plants, Cannabis has not fully benefited from modern scientific technologies, which has created a major knowledge gap that remains to be filled .

The last decade has witnessed a revival of interest in Cannabis research, especially in relation to the genetic and phytochemical features of the different varieties and to its evolutionary origin, domestication and further geographic diffusion . For example, the use of modern methods of molecular analysis has helped clarify the taxonomy of the Cannabis complex and its genetic modifications over time as a result of artificial  selection during the domestication process . Palynological and archeological records have been used mostly to identify the geographical center of origin of Cannabis, its center of domestication and further human-driven diffusion patterns throughout the world. Modern global and regional databases and associated handling facilities, notably geographic information system  tools, have been instrumental in this type of research . This paper briefly reviews the newly available information on the center of origin and the center of domestication of Cannabis and its further worldwide dispersal, with a focus on Europe,cannabis grow tray where spatiotemporal diffusion patterns remain controversial, and the Iberian Peninsula, which represents a knowledge gap regarding the tempo and mode of Cannabis arrival and diffusion.

Previous reviews on the subject date from roughly a decade ago . A review including the research developed on Cannabis during the last decade, which has been fundamental for setting the present standards of knowledge, is lacking. This is especially true for the meta-analyses and molecular phylogenetic investigations developed during the last five years. The present review represents an updated outlook on the evolution, domestication and worldwide diffusion of Cannabis that includes the latest developments on this topic. The review begins with a brief section regarding the current state of Cannabis taxonomy, ecology, phenology and human uses. The next section discusses the evolutionary center of origin and the time of appearance of the original wild Cannabis, followed by similar geographic and chronological considerations on Cannabis domestication and diffusion of its cultivated forms. The next section focuses on Europe, where domestication and diffusion patterns are still under discussion.

The most commonly used paradigm is a single intraperitoneal drug injection followed some hours later by brain slice preparation and electrophysiological recording . For example, Mato and coworkers observed that LTD was impaired at GABAergic synapses in the CA1 hippocampal subregion 15- 20 hours after a single THC injection . These investigators also found a similar impairment of LTD at glutamatergic synapses in the NAc. Impaired LTD persists for up to three days after the drug injection. In slices from the ventral tegmental area , an increase in synaptic AMPA receptors was observed 24 hours following a single THC injection, perhaps indicative of long-term potentiation at these synapses . Chronic cannabinoid drug use is associated with increased risk of developing CUD, which is accompanied by neurobiological changes in reward-related and cognitive circuit functions. Cognitive changes following chronic cannabinoid use contribute in part to the maintenance of CUD via increased impulsivity and impaired decision making.The most consistent neurobiological consequence of chronic THC exposure is decreased CB1 receptor numbers,mobile grow rack as well as decreased CB1 agonist and eCB-induced presynaptic modulation. Long-term exposure to THC and synthetic cannabinoids results in region-specific decreases in CB1 receptor expression which likely contribute to differences in receptor radioligand binding and reduced drug sensitivity .

Furthermore, chronic exposure to cannabinoids impairs synaptic plasticity, and this impairment is accompanied by the desensitization of CB1 receptors . The desensitization and downregulation of CB1 receptors have been consistently implicated in the development of cannabis tolerance  and have been observed in individuals that regularly use cannabis . Chronic cannabinoid exposure produces widespread reversible downregulation and desensitization of CB1 receptors . The magnitude of downregulation is generally 25-50% depending on the measurement type  and brain region examined. Greater decreases were reported in the cerebellum and hippocampus compared to somewhat smaller magnitudes in the basal ganglia and midbrain . Given that the magnitude of down regulation is smaller in the midbrain and basal ganglia, it is not surprising that the rate of reversal is faster in the striatum and midbrain than in other brain regions . Together, these mechanisms provide the underlying biological properties by which cannabinoid tolerance can develop . The functional significance of AEA and 2-AG in promoting cannabinoid tolerance and dependence have been explored. Repeated administration of AEA or an AEA analog  has yielded inconclusive findings on the reduction of CB1 receptor density and signaling . Furthermore, pharmacological blockade of FAAH does not alter CB1 receptor expression and function .

In mice lacking FAAH, chronic administration of THC produces similar magnitudes of CB1 receptor desensitization and down regulation in the striatum, hippocampus, and cerebellum compared to controls . These findings suggest that AEA signaling doesn’t contribute to the receptor down regulation in response to chronic THC exposure. It is worth mentioning that the deletion of FAAH does not alter CB1 receptor expression in brain . On the other hand, chronically elevated levels of 2-AG achieved by genetic deletion or pharmacological blockade of MAGL results in the reduction of CB1 receptor density and function 4×8 grow table . Thus, increased 2-AG tone can possibly desensitize and down regulate CB1 receptors . The molecular mechanisms involved in CB1 receptor desensitization and down regulation have been explored, but to date there is little evidence about which mechanisms are involved in loss of presynaptic receptor function. The radiolig and binding studies mentioned above, and a few immunochemical studies that indicate decreased receptor numbers are consistent with CB1 receptor internalization or degradation as candidate mechanisms for CB1 receptor desensitization. Indeed, loss of cell surface receptors consistent with these mechanisms has been observed in heterologous cellular expression systems and in primary neuronal cultures .

The most direct evidence of decreased CB1 receptor on the plasma membrane of presynaptic terminals induced by chronic THC exposure in adult animals was obtained with super-resolution microscopy imaging or GABAergic terminals in the hippocampal CA1 region . Recovery of terminal surface CB1 levels was observed several weeks after cessation of THC treatment. However, reduced CB1 levels are not always apparent under conditions where decreased receptor induced signaling and tolerance to agonist effects on transmission are observed . Thus, other mechanisms of desensitization, such as uncoupling of CB1 receptors from G proteins and other intracellular signaling mechanisms, or changes in the intracellular signaling systems themselves have also been explored.

Given the mixed literature regarding associations between cannabis use and anxiety , future research should test a wider range of NA items and study their potential differential association with cannabis use. Future studies are needed to test if our results generalize to other student populations and jurisdictions. The observed cannabis-affect associations may also depend on the mode of cannabis administration and tetrahydro cannabinol  versus Cannabidiol  concentrations . Despite participants indicating they smoked cannabis joints, we did not include detailed momentary assessments on methods of use and product. A controlled cannabis intoxication study including manipulation by THC/CBD concentration and mode of administration could add essential information to the mechanisms of cannabis use. As of yet, there is only limited evidence that CBD alters THC’s effects on mood . We did not measure expectancies, motivation  or social context of use, which may be important moderating and mediating factors of the relationships between cannabis use and mood . Medical use is probably uncommon in our sample as it is generally associated with older age groups, and compared to other countries the number of registered medical cannabis users is low in the Netherlands .

Finally, while this study answers a general call to include momentary questions regarding amount used , cannabis grow tray the measure may be unreliable . Since the focus was on within-subject differences, it is, however, expected that any related bias should be minimal; while there may be differences between individuals’ visual estimates of a gram of cannabis, the estimates are likely to be similar within the individual.  Tobacco and cannabis use during pregnancy are a major public health problem . Pregnancy tobacco and cannabis use are associated with adverse perinatal outcomes including placenta abruption, abortion, fetal growth restriction, preterm, small for gestational age and low birth weight . Paradoxically, previous studies reported that maternal tobacco use during pregnancy is associated with a lower risk of preeclampsia . In contrast, co-use of cannabis and tobacco during pregnancy seems to be associated with a higher risk of preeclampsia . Early placental vascularization and development may be involved in the relation of tobacco and cannabis use with pregnancy outcomes . Maternal smoking during pregnancy may impair the placental development altering its proliferation, differentiation and structure . Early vascular placentation development is regulated by both soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1  as an anti-angiogenic and placental growth factor  as a pro-angiogenic factor . The imbalance between these anti- and pro-angiogenic factors seems to be associated with pregnancy complications, including preeclampsia, fetal growth restriction and preterm . Cannabis exposure may affect early placentation process by compromising the trophoblastic migration through the endocannabinoid system .

Additionally, a recent study showed that preconception tobacco and cannabis use are associated with a higher risk of preterm and low birth weight in offspring, but little is known about the influence on placental development . Based on previous studies, we hypothesized that maternal tobacco and cannabis use are associated with impaired placental development characterized by changes in placental angiogenic markers and placental structure . We examined the associations of maternal tobacco and cannabis use before and during pregnancy with angiogenic factors in a population-based cohort. Angiogenic factors included PIGF and sFIt-1 vertical grow systems for sale. We also examined the associations of maternal tobacco and cannabis use with placental weight, placental weight to birth weight ratio  and the risks of pregnancy complications including gestational hypertensive disorders, preterm and small for gestational age . Suboptimal placental development may be caused by an imbalance in angiogenic growth factors and subsequently lead to pregnancy complications . We observed that continued tobacco use during pregnancy produced a pro-angiogenic state, with a lower sFlt-1/PlGF ratio, lower sFlt-1 and higher PlGF concentrations in the second trimester. This is in agreement with previous studies, which reported that continued maternal smoking in pregnancy stimulates pro-angiogenic factors and decreases anti-angiogenic factors, particularly in the first and second trimester . Further, a nested case-control study in the United States  among 1323 normotensive nulliparous pregnant women reported that continued maternal tobacco use during pregnancy was associated with lower sFlt-1 and higher PlGF concentrations in the first and second trimester .

The enactment of recreational cannabis legalization in Uruguay, Canada and 18 U.S. states has reignited the international debate about the preferred policy approach to cannabis , 2020; Hall et al., 2019. In previous decades, a range of cannabis decriminalization regimes were enacted in over 30 countries, notably in the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Australia, and Germany ; however, further reform involving permitting legal production and retail sales remains controversial. In New Zealand,activism against the prohibition of cannabis and related enforcement operations, such as the annual cannabis crop eradication operation, has been going on for decades. Yet unlike neighboring Australia, where several states implemented cannabis decriminalization during the 1980s and 1990s , the prohibition of cannabis has remained largely unchanged in New Zealand, vertical rack system apart from minor cannabis offences being included in a general criminal justice movement away from prosecution to use of diversion and formal warnings for minor offending .

In 2017, the New Zealand Green Party, which had advocated for cannabis law reform for many years, secured a commitment to hold a referendum on the legal status of cannabis in New Zealand as part of its support for the new Labor government. A national referendum on a proposal to legalize recreational cannabis use and supply was held in 2020  and did not pass . The New Zealand referendum was notable as it was the first to be held at the national level and to involve voting on a detailed proposal setting out a specific framework to establish a legal market for cannabis rather than a general question about whether cannabis should be legal or not . Despite the rejection of the legalization referendum, debate about the legal status of cannabis has continued in New Zealand and alternative proposals have been put forward , including a petition to introduce decriminalization . The evaluation of cannabis legalization in U.S. states is further complicated by the continuing federal prohibition and related regulatory gaps and barriers to doing business.

In addition, it has been recognized that how individuals and groups normatively value different cannabis re- form objectives and outcomes influences their preferred reform option . Drug policy researchers have long pointed out there are a range of alternative ‘middle ground’ options to cannabis policy reform be- tween prohibition on the one hand and unrestricted commercial markets on the other mobile grow rack. These include home cultivation, social clubs, not-for-profit community trusts, government monopolies, heavily regulated markets and “for-benefit ”companies . However, these middle ground approaches have received less mainstream media and political attention than the familiar alcohol- style regimes implemented in U.S. states. For example, Uruguay passed a largely non-commercial supply sys- tem for recreational cannabis use in 2013, although it has taken some time to establish the registration system and pharmacy retail supply . Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis  is a group decision making method used to help resolve complex and controversial public pol- icy decisions characterized by uncertainty and incomplete information . For example, it has been used to assess nuclear waste management and the risk- benefit ratio of prescription drugs .

MCDA has previously been employed in the drug policy field to assess the harms of different drug types and different policy approaches to drug access and control . MCDA al- lows decision-makers to break down complex problems into simpler and essential components, facilitates the combining and integrating of the knowledge of many decision-makers with a range of expertise, and supports collaborative problem-solving and consensus building, particularly where there is conflicting experiences or perspectives . While MCDA has been utilized in the drug policy field, it is also acknowledged that the outcome of an MCDA analysis is influenced by the composition of the decision-making group . MCDA of drug policies to date have largely involved small groups of health and academic experts. As a result, there have been calls for broadening these decision-making groups to provide wider perspectives on policy reform .

Participants who completed the baseline survey with responses consistent with the eligibility screener were randomized to immediately receive either the personalized feedback final report  or to just receive the educational materials . Those completing the three- and six-month follow-up surveys were provided with gift certificates from Amazon.ca . Participants were sent an email  containing a link to complete the follow-up survey online. In the current trial, an updated version of an existing personalized feedback intervention for risky cannabis use was employed . Briefly, the personalized feedback final report allows participants to compare their own risky cannabis use to other people in the general population of Canada. For this version, the general population norms were derived from the most recently available Canadian Tobacco, Alcohol and Drugs Survey. In the final report, norms regarding frequency of cannabis use were provided that compared the participant to others of the same gender and age group. If participants did not identify as male or female, mobile grow rack then feedback was generated based on the population norms of age . It should be noted that the norms generated were derived from population data collected prior to the legalization of cannabis in Canada and it was anticipated that they would report lower levels of cannabis use than was observed in the general population after legalization.

However, we believed that this was not necessarily a weakness for the proposed intervention as norms that show lower use of cannabis in the general population would accentuate the difference between the participant’s own use and that of other Canadians their age and gender, thus potentially making the intervention more impactful. As new population data is collected, the population norms could be updated. See Fig. 2 for an example of the personalized normative feedback component from the final report. New to this version of the intervention, participants were provided feedback from the Marijuana Problems Scale , a self-report questionnaire with 19 items asking how frequently the participant experienced a number of consequences related to their cannabis use. Following the feedback framework developed by Bertholet et al.  in their personalized feedback intervention for alcohol, relevant items from this scale were divided into three categories – Me & my body , Me and my relationships , and Me and my professional activities . A thermometer-type figure was provided in the feedback for each of these categories with the level on the thermometer marked based on the number of consequences experienced in the past three-months . The actual consequences endorsed were also listed after each thermometer . Next, if participants stated that they used cannabis with tobacco, with alcohol, or drove while under the influence of cannabis, they were provided with an explanation of why each of these activities increased their risk of harm.

The feedback then continued with a summary of their ASSIST cannabis subscale score that included a graphical depiction of their score mobile vertical grow racks. Finally, the personalized feedback was accompanied by educational material that had already been developed and pilot tested at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. Specifically, participants were provided with content from, “Canada’s Lower- Risk Cannabis Use Guidelines” . Missing data was handled using maximum likelihood estimation. Analyses of the primary hypothesis evaluated the effect of the personalized feedback intervention  versus the educational material only  on reductions in the variable, number of days consumed cannabis in the past 30, between baseline and three and six months. Time point  was entered as a within-subjects predictor and a dummy-coded contrast represented intervention versus control group conditions. The interaction between time point and condition was examined to determine if changes in cannabis consumption differed between the two conditions. Demographic or cannabis use characteristics that were significantly different across condition at baseline were included as covariates to address any potential differences between intervention and control groups. In addition, because the COVID pandemic was ongoing during the follow-up period for some participants of this study, we included a variable that recorded whether the pandemic was ongoing  as a covariate. As part of this analysis, a chi-square analysis was conducted to determine whether there was differential loss to follow-up between experimental groups. The analysis for secondary hypothesis 1 employed a manual step wise logistic regression, with risky use of cannabis at the three- or six-month follow-ups as the dependent variable.

Apart from the interaction with the endocannabinoid system through alteration of endocannabinoid signaling, the effect of CBD on drug addiction has been shown to involve modest affinity agonist action at 5-HT1A receptors . So far, two studies have examined the effects of CBD in adult cannabis users . A pragmatic open-label clinical trial evaluated the effect of 10 weeks of 200 mg daily CBD administration on psychological symptoms and cognition in adults with frequent cannabis use , while participants continued cannabis use . Compared with baseline, participants reported fewer depressive and psychotic symptoms, but more state anxiety symptoms after CBD treatment, and demonstrated improvement in attentional switching, verbal learning, and memory. CBD was well tolerated with no reported side effects, in line with a recent meta-analysis of CBD clinical trials reflecting that CBD tends to be very well-tolerated with few serious adverse effects. Participants retrospectively reported reduced euphoria when smoking cannabis, in line with previous studies showing that CBD reverses the reinforcing effects of cannabis in youth . The study provided the first evidence that prolonged CBD treatment may improve psychological symptoms and cognitive function in frequent users, with greater benefits in dependent than in nondependent cannabis users.

However, the study lacked a placebo control and was not designed to examine effects on cannabis use. Recently,cannabis grow lights Freeman and colleagues  offered the first empirical data supporting that a treatment package comprised of CBD + MI was able to engage non-treatment seeking adults with CUD and reduce post-treatment cannabis use. In a phase 2a dose-finding RCT, they found that synthetic CBD over a 4-week treatment period outperformed placebo  at daily doses of 400 mg  or 800 mg  ; eliminated at interim analysis due to inefficacy) in reducing biological and self-report metrics of cannabis use among a sample of non-treatment seeking adults with CUD, who wanted to quit cannabis use. Reductions in use were maintained up to 24 weeks following treatment with 400 mg CBD. Results on secondary outcomes were mixed. However, there was some evidence for CBD reducing cigarette use, cannabis withdrawal symptoms, and anxiety. By contrast, there was no evidence for changes in alcohol use, and there was evidence for a decrease in sleep quality following CBD treatment. Importantly, in terms of potential disruption in functioning, use of CBD was not associated with more adverse events than placebo – in line with the open-label trial . Furthermore, the study showed impressive retention rates with 94 % retention throughout the study period.

To summarize, very few studies have examined the effect of non-THC based cannabinoid treatment strategies on CUD to date, but evidence from the first studies is promising. In the first placebo-controlled RCT in adults with cannabis dependence, FAAH inhibitors  reduced withdrawal symptoms and cannabis use compared to placebo, cannabis grow tent with no difference in adverse outcomes between groups. A pragmatic open label trial of CBD  in adults who continued their frequent cannabis use found improvements in depressive and psychotic symptoms, attention, learning and memory, and reduced euphoria when smoking cannabis. In the first placebo-controlled RCT of CBD in adults with cannabis dependence, CBD  reduced cannabis use, with no difference in adverse outcomes between groups.As reviewed in Section 5.1, evidence from randomized placebo-controlled studies suggests that treatment with synthetic THC  decreases withdrawal symptoms, but not cannabis use, in adults with daily cannabis use or CUD.

Further, the same studies suggest that higher doses of THC may increase cannabis intoxication and liking, while the evidence regarding THC combined with CBD  is more mixed. The lack of effect on cannabis use and abstinence in adult studies with synthetic THC conducted so far, including studies where THC is administered concomitantly with MI/CBT up to 12 weeks, suggests that the efficacy of synthetic THC as a treatment among youth with CUD should not be tested as a stand-alone pharmacological treatment. The relatively consistent effect on withdrawal symptoms may suggest potential for combining dronabinol or nabilone with other medications, however, this should be weighed against potential negative outcomes associated with administering THC in youth samples. More specifically, the evidence from laboratory studies suggests that higher doses of THC may increase cannabis intoxication and drug liking, which naturally raises concern, as these effects may pose a risk for relapse in patients who have stopped using cannabis and may be even more problematic in patients that aim to reduce, but not stop, using cannabis.

This explains the transport of particles from northern Africa to the Iberian Peninsula and, specifically, to the Region of Murcia.At 18 h the previous day, with back trajectories at 350, 500 and 650m amsl, air masses originated over the Atlantic Ocean but travelled across Africa before arriving to their destination. All the air masses had approached the ground between 6 h and 18 h the previous day and slowed down when they reached the Region of Murcia. All the airmasses originated over the Atlantic Ocean, but they travelled across Africa, coming into contact with the ground from 6 h to 12 h the previous day and slowing down when they reached the Region of Murcia. Although the back trajectoriesin Fig. 4 correspond to the coordinates of Cartagena, the analysis wascomparable to the back trajectories of Murcia and Lorca. Another aspect that points to the African origin of Cannabis is the detection of African grains can rupture when they impact solid surfaces in light breezes. The release of paucimicronic particles caused by a hypothetical rupture of Cannabis pollen, either from Africa or local/regional sources, could affect those previously sensitised. Cannabis corporations share links with the alcohol and tobacco industries. Tobacco companies Altria , Imperial Brands , and British American Tobacco ,cannabis grow tray have all made significant investments in cannabis, a long- anticipated development . Constellation Brands, maker of Corona beer, has also made investments in Canopy Growth, a Canadian cannabis corporation .

Tobacco and alcohol interests have openly formalized a cannabis-focused political association as members of the Coalition for Cannabis Policy, Education, and Regulation, a lobbying group that lists Altria, Constellation Brands, and Molson Coors Beverage Company as members . Employing tactics used by the tobacco industry for decades , cannabis companies are also vested in major sports through sponsorship of athletes and leagues in the US . Considering the health risks involved with cannabis use and the conflict between public health and the commercial interests of these industries, systematic analyses of cannabis industry influence on policymaking are essential. There has been little study on the topic de- spite several calls for research . Although there have been popular media reports on cannabis industry lobbying expenditures,we identified no systematic analyses that assessed cannabis lobbying over time or identified connections between the cannabis industry and affiliates. Cannabis products are legal in multiple states, while remaining illegal at the federal level. Even though federal law technically supersedes state law, gaps in enforcement have been carved out by the federal government to allow for state legalization of adult-use and medical cannabis . As a result, it remains to be seen whether cannabis industry efforts to influence policy are comparable to other industries for which recreational consumption has historically been legal. In this study we sought to describe cannabis industry lobbying in the Colorado state legislature, which dictates product standards, vertical grow systems for sale licensing requirements, and other policies relevant to cannabis sales.

We hypothesized that the cannabis industry would use strategies similar to those of other similar industries including relying on hired lobbyists , obscuring industry funding,  working with related industries,  and building national networks to support policies likely to in- crease consumption . We focused on Colorado because it was the first state to legalize recreational cannabis in 2012, making it possible to assess whether cannabis industry lobbying activities have become comparable to other industries in nature and scope over time. Because of the complexity of relationships between the cannabis industry, lobbyists, and government officials, we supplemented the quantitative analyses with a case study illustrating cannabis industry tactics to influence the Colorado legislature. Colorado requires lobbyists to file reports on their activities with the Secretary of State, even if they are a salaried employee of the business they represent.From February to September 2021, we collected data on lobbying expenditures originating from the cannabis industry and its affiliates, from July 1, 2009  to June 30, 2021 . The Colorado Department of State dataset details payments to registered lobbyists, with information on funders who hire lobbyists , bill/rule titles and positions  associated with payments, and lobbyist identifying information . To identify cannabis industry affiliates, we reviewed all funders in this dataset that lobbied on a list of 453 bills in fiscal years 2010–2021 that included the words “cannabis, ”“marijuana, ”or “hemp ”. Using the CDOS business database, the Colorado Marijuana Enforcement Division search tool, and internet searches, we coded funders as cannabis affiliates if they a) held a cannabis business license, b) shared board members, owners, or investors with a cannabis company, c) disclosed members that were cannabis businesses, or d) would directly profit from cannabis sector growth .