Hemp Growing

The 2011 Monitoring the Future Survey reported that there is an increase in American youth marijuana use and that there has been an attenuation of perceived risks associated with regular marijuana use . These trends highlight the importance of understanding the impact of marijuana on neural processing.Using fMRI Tapert et al.compared adolescent marijuana users and nonusers during a Go/No-Go task and found that users showed altered blood oxygen level dependent response during both Go and No-Gotrials even after 28 days of abstinence.This was interpreted as an increase in effort required to perform the task. Additionally,using a Stroop test,a measure of response inhibition,and fMRI,compared adult marijuana users and nonusers, with the users testing positive for recent marijuana use in a urine test. Consistent with,they found greater activation, in the users compared to nonusers,in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. In addition, they also found that users showed decreased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex.

These results were interpreted to suggest that the marijuana smokers used different cortical processes than nonusers to perform the task. In two more recent studies, results also illustrated that active marijuana users display greater levels of functional abnormalities than abstinent users in frontal, parietal and cerebellar brain regions as they performed other executive functioning tasks, including visuospatial working memory.Again, similar interpretations were suggested,including that marijuana users were required to recruit different neural pathways to perform the tasks and that exposure at a young age may increase the vulnerability to these effects. Despite these findings, further data is needed to more clearly specify and elaborate how early exposure to marijuana affects neural processing in young adult hood.An important requisite in this quest is a well controlled sample.The differences in neural activation in marijuana users are mostly due to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol ,marijuana’s most active psychoactive ingredient,which acts as a ligand for human cannabinoid receptors.The wide distribution of these receptors in the human brain,with particularly high densities in the cerebellum, parts of the basal ganglia, hippocampus, and many regions of the neocortex,poses great concern for the maintenance of a healthy ability to cognitively process information.Considering the neurodevelopment that occurs during adolescence and young adulthood, specifically, prefrontal cortex development and the subsequent advancement of executive functioning,it is clear that understanding this neural impact of marijuana in youth is imperative.

Further understanding this impact was the goal of the present study.The Ottawa Prenatal Prospective Study is an ongoing longitudinal investigation that was initiated in1978, with the primary objective of examining the effects of “soft” prenatal drug exposure on offspring. Children were followed from infancy to young adulthood where detailed information has been collected on their prenatal drug exposure, current and past drug use, cognitive/behavioral performance, and over 4000 lifestyle variables. Using this unique sample in combination with the powerful imaging technique, fMRI, and a well established Go/No Go task, the purpose of the present study was to determine if there was a significant relationship between brain activity and marijuana use and if this could be observed in young adults with relatively few years of exposure. Based on previous research where marijuana users and nonusers showed no differences in task performance,it was hypothesized that there would be no performance differences between groups for the present study. Despite this, marijuana users would require greater activation than controls in brain regions that typically demonstrate response inhibition in order to successfully perform the task, including the prefrontal cortex.

The most substantial differences in activation were found to be right lateralized in the premotor cortex and the middle frontal gyrus or dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.Response inhibition in healthy controls involves a distributed network that includes these areas as well as parietal areas.During response inhibition, the premotor cortex is involved in response competition and the preparatory process leading to correct initiation or suppression of movement . Given that there were non-significant behavioral differences in errors of commission between the two groups it is unlikely that this increased activation of the premotor cortex is related to increased motor responses in the users. Also,found that mostly left premotor cortex is involved during preparation to respond. Thus, the findings from the present study suggest that marijuana smokers may need to compensate by recruiting homologous contralateral areas in order to correctly initiate or suppress responses.

Additive scales demonstrated positive skew, so the natural logarithms of each were taken to normalize their distributions.The alpha coefficients ranged from 0.73 – 0.80 across the eight years.Studies have also found that patterns of marijuana use and depressive symptoms vary by several demographic characteristics. Thus, the following control variables were included in the model: family income and family structure.In addition,by the end of the observation period many respondents were young adults and a modest proportion had married, cohabited, or had a child. Since these life changes may affect the propensity to use marijuana or experience depressive symptoms, each year included dummy variables that indicated whether or not the respondent was married or cohabiting, or had a resident child. Finally, age was included in each model. Since preliminary analyses suggested that age had a quadratic association with depressive symptoms, both age and age-squared were included in the models.

Table 1 provides information about the distributions of all the variables used in the analysis. The standard deviations were decomposed into within-year and between-year components. Note that, for several of the variables, there was a similar degree of variability within and between years. The hypotheses were designed to compare four potential associations between marijuana use and depressive symptoms among young people. One of the hypotheses claimed that there are reciprocal associations between the two outcomes.Assessing reciprocal associations is complicated since the error terms of equations designed to predict two outcomes are not independent, thus failing to satisfy a key statistical assumption of most regression models. Another complication is that unobserved factors may confound any association between the two outcomes.In order to obviate each of these potential limitations, a fixed-effects regression model was estimated using an instrumental variables approach designed for longitudinal data. Fixed-effects regression adjusts for unobserved invariant factors and thus can reveal causal patterns among time-varying explanatory and outcome variables. The explanatory variables were each measured in the year prior to the outcome variables to better establish their causal ordering.For example, in the equation designed to predict marijuana use, depressive symptoms, stressful life events, self-esteem, self-efficacy and the other covariates were measured at time t − 1.

The results of the fixed-effects models are presented in Table 2.The coefficients represent within-person changes in the outcome variables for each one-unit change in the explanatory variables. In general, the results provided support for hypothesis 1 and failed to support the other three hypotheses. Eachone-unit increase in marijuana use was associated with a 1.75 increase in depressive symptoms relative to an individual’s average depressive symptoms score.Although stressful life events were also associated with changes in marijuana use and depressive symptoms, they did not attenuate the effects of marijuana use on depressive symptoms . In addition, there was no evidence from the empirical model that depressive symptoms led to changes in subsequent marijuana use, thus indicating that neither hypothesis 2 nor 3 was supported.The other results were consistent with previous research . Higher levels of self-esteem and self-efficacy were associated with fewer depressive symptoms. Peer substance use led to increases in marijuana use overtime. It was also associated with lower levels of depression, which may be indicative of how interpersonal associations, even with deviant peers, provide support that protects youth from issues of depression.Fixed-effects regression models assume that the effects of time-invariant factors,which are not directly estimated by these models, do not change over time. For example, variables such as gender and race/ethnicity are assumed to have the same influence on, say, depression and marijuana use regardless of the year or the age at which they are measured.

One way to test this assumption is to introduce interaction terms between time-invariant factors and time-varying explanatory variables. Since research has suggested that the effects of stress and family relations on marijuana use and depression may differ by gender,the models were extended to include interaction terms of each . The results of this robustness check indicated that no interactions attained statistical significance, thus further justifying the use of the fixed-effects approach. This study was designed to examine the association between marijuana use and depressive symptoms across a period of the life course, adolescence and young adulthood, when significant changes are occurring among individuals. Previous studies suggested that marijuana use and depressive symptoms may be associated in a unidirectional or a bidirectional manner; or their association may be explained by stressful life experiences or other factors that are unobserved inmost research studies.

This is also not surprising since the total amount of smoke ingested by users of both products is likely to be much greater than that ingested by respondents who smoke only marijuana.Tobacco and marijuana are similar in many respects so that the damage that these two products cause can be compared. Table 7 shows the proportion of explained variation that is due to tobacco and marijuana use for the age group 15 – 24. The first row in this table gives the values of the ln-likelihood function at baseline; that is when no regressors are used. The next rows display the ln-likelihood function as groups of regressors are added as explanatory variables. First demographic variables are included, then smoking variables, and finally the variables representing marijuana use. The proportion of the explained variation due to smoking is 62.2% and 66.1% for males and females,respectively. However, the proportions explained by marijuana use are much smaller at7.1% and 21.3% so marijuana use as a factor in self-reported physica health is much less important that tobacco use.

It should also be noted that in addition to the larger proportion of explained variation, which due to marijuana use it is also the case that both self-reported health measures are higher among regular marijuana users than for daily smokers. This result also holds for self-reported mental healthy though the difference between the effects of two substances is not nearly as great. This is not so surprising as it may appear; there is a literature, which deals with smoking and mental problems.Depression, anxiety, schizophrenia have been linked to cigarette smoking.Summarizing what we have found, the major health issue involving marijuana concerns teenagers and adolescents. It starts with this age group and often ends with it. Individuals who do not use marijuana before the age of 21 almost never use it. Its use is also more likely to be associated with males. Like most other researchers who have examined the health consequences of marijuana use, we find harmful effects on both physical and mental health that are persistent even if respondents are no longer users.The impression portrayed by the literature is that early and continued significant use is what matters.

Our results are consistent with these findings but are much less favorable towards marijuana use. It seems that given existing use habits of Canadian teenagers if they start using earlier than the age of 15 they will suffer for the rest of their lives even if they never use marijuana after the age of 21. On a more positive note we found that marijuana use explained less of the variation in self-reported health than that attributable to smoking tobacco for the age group 15 – 24, in spite of the fact that there more marijuana users than tobacco users in this age group. Male marijuana users under the age of 21 were almost 3 times as numerous as tobacco users. Marijuana is damaging health-wise but not as damaging as teenage tobacco smoking, the consequences of which as a society we have been able to manage.It would also seem that the likelihood of an epidemic of health problems emerging out of new marijuana regulations could be dramatically reduced if extensive educational programs in schools accompany legalization. Data from the 2012 Canadian Alcohol and Drug Use Monitoring Survey show that only five percent of respondents below the age of 21 think that regular use of marijuana is a health hazard. If this age group were better informed about the risks of cognitive impairment and psychological damage that arise with adolescent marijuana use its members might be less inclined to be users.

Anti-smoking campaigns have been very successful in reducing tobacco use among elementary and high school students. This shows up in our data as a lower rate of tobacco use. It is possible that marijuana usage could be also reduced in this age group if more information is made available.The implication for drug policy that comes from these results is that marijuana legalization should be facilitated through a set of institutional arrangements which limit access to marijuana for all individuals under the age of 18. Adolescents need to be encouraged not to use marijuana and strict government control over its production and distribution is needed to protect them. Price, THC content, and advertising also have to be regulated. At a more general level public policy should promote caution and awareness of the harmful consequences of marijuana use. Data from a total of 43 marijuana smokers and 22 non-smokers were used in this study. None of these 65 individuals reported smoking tobacco products. Due to the novelty of this work, subjects were not restricted based on body mass index or dietary intake. That said, individuals who were using certain medications which are known to impact the outcome measures of the investigation were excluded. Subjects were recruited into the study through the use of flyers and online announcements.

The patient’s past medical history included Type 1 diabetes mellitus,gastroparesis, and hypertension. Her social history was significant for daily marijuana use, but she denied alcohol and tobacco. Upon the current admission, the patient denied chest pain, headaches, shortness of breath, back pain, and diarrhea. The patient also stated that nothing aggravated or relieved the symptoms. Vitals were as follows: Blood pressure 153/110mmHg, Pulse 95 beats/min, temperature 98.9°F, respiratory rate 15 breaths/min,and SpO2 100% on room air. A physical exam revealed an alert, awake, and oriented female with dry mucus membranes, diffuse abdominal pain, and bilateral mild tingling sensation in lower extremities. Her vomiting was bilious and sometimes mixed with blood. Cardiac and lung examinations were unremarkable.The patient’s social history, clinical presentation, vital signs, and labsat admission supported the diagnosis of CHS and are depicted in Table 1. The patient left the hospital against medical advice and was discharged on haloperidol5 mg by mouth every 8 hours. The patient was given instructions regarding the diagnosis, expectations, follow-up, and return precautions.

Unfortunately,despite counseling, the patient was not amenable to cannabis cessation at that time. She was also counseled on the importance of therapy adherence and following up with her primary care physician. Reports of CHS in patients have increased over the years, despite the syndrome’s increasing prevalence, many physicians are unfamiliar with its diagnosis and treatment . This under-recognition may be due to the paradoxical use for the treatment of nausea and vomiting, the stigma associated with cannabis use,and the illegal status of cannabis in some areas leading to under-reporting of use.The frequency of emergency department visits and high hospital admission rates for CHS exemplify the difficulty in symptom management . The lack of knowledge and treatment recommendations regarding CHS compounds this issue.We report the first case of recurrent acute cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome successfully treated with haloperidol given both intramuscularly and orally. The Naranjo adverse drug reaction probability scale was utilized to assess the probability that the hyperemesis was related to cannabinoid use, and a total score of 6 was obtained.Diagnosis is determined through receiving a detailed medication history and a comprehensive physical examination.

In a recent systematic review conducted by Sorensen and colleagues, the following diagnostic characteristics and frequency of each were found: history of regular cannabis use for over one year, severe nausea and vomiting ,vomiting that recurs in a cyclic pattern over months, resolution of symptoms after stopping cannabis, compulsive hot baths/showers with symptom relief , male predominance, abdominal pain , at least weekly cannabis use, history of daily cannabis use , and age less than 50 at time of evaluation. With >10 years of self-reported cannabis use, our patient experienced the following symptoms: severe nausea and vomiting that has recurred over many months in a cyclic pattern.Haloperidol is a drug primarily used for sedation, behavioral agitation, and asan antipsychotic. However, haloperidol has been used as an antiemetic for years,particularly in the anesthesia, general surgery, and oncology literature .Haloperidolis a butyrophenone antipsychotic that non-selectively blocks postsynaptic dopaminergic D2 receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone. The CTZ is located in the medulla oblongata and is exposed to toxins in the blood stream,which triggers vomiting. The mechanism of action of haloperidol’s antiemetic effects in CHS is unknown. The medication may decrease nausea and vomiting by blocking the dopamine receptors in the CTZ, thus reducing input to the medullary vomiting center. Early administration of haloperidol in acute episodes of CHS may reduce symptoms, minimize the time in the emergency room,and reduce the rate of hospital admissions .

These reported cases have been summarized in Table 4. In 5 out of the 6 reportedcases,haloperidol was given intramuscularly only, and in one case, the route of administration was not provided . Also, interestingly only one of the cases was a woman and our case makes two. In a recent analysis synthesizing findings from case reports found that men were overwhelmingly more likely to be diagnosed with CHS relative to women. However, this sex discrepancy may reflect heavier cannabis use reported among men relative to women, rather than a sex-specific sensitivity to this adverse effect of cannabis. More studies are warranted to research these findings.The main point from these six cases was that patients continued to have refractorynausea and vomiting with standard antiemetics. However, once given doses of haloperidol, the patients experienced a clinically significant improvement in their symptoms. And like the other cases, our patient received a multitude of other antiemetics without the relief of symptoms and it was only when she was treated with IV haloperidol followed by oral did her symptoms subside.

Since cysteine synthase was inhibited in vivo and in vitro by AOA and Boc-AOA, and because there was no major difference in phytotoxicity of the two compounds in these young plants, apparently the N-t -butoxycarbonyl group does not alter the activity of the AOA molecule. An exception however, was the greater growth reduction caused by Boc-AOA plusA. cassiae compared to the AOA plus A. cassiae treatment. Furthermore, these chemicals had no apparent interactions with C. truncatum and A. cassiae efficacy on their respective weed hosts.The increase in extractable cysteine synthase activity in sicklepod following infection by A. cassiae, may be related to defense mechanisms of this weed against this pathogen.There may be some inherent differences in the overall action of AOA and Boc-AOA, but it is not possible to tell from these results and the scope of this study. It is also not known if Boc-AOA is converted to AOA by enzyme hydrolysis of the substituted amide bond by these plants and their respective pathogens.A herbicidal analog of AOA, benzadox, is thought to be metabolized in planta to form AOA .

Also interesting is the naturally occurring compound irpexil, a herbicidal compound produced by the basidiomyceteIrpex pachyodon.This compound has structural features analogous to AOA and the herbicide benzadox.Benzadox is an inhibitor of alanineaminotransferase,but the mechanism of action of irpexil, is unknown.Benzadox has been shown to be metabolized in plants to produce AOA . Similar compounds such as aryl-substituted α-aminooxy carboxylic acids are also phytotoxic and act as auxin transport inhibitors. AOA has been tested as a synergist with C. coccodes a bioherbicide of velvet leaf. However, AOA was found to be inhibitory to the growth of this fungus on PDA in Petri dishes, when applied together with the fungus, or if applied via vacuum infiltration on velvetleaf leaves and furthermore, no synergy was observed in those studies.Although the interactions that we found during these experiments resulted in no major synergistic effects, novel information was generated on the important enzyme CS and on AOA interactions with two bioherbicides that have received major attention as weed control agents.The incorporation of plant materials to soils, with the objective of maintaining or improving fertility for the subsequent crop, is known as green manuring.

The inclusion of a legume fallow within a sugarcane cropping cycle is practiced to reduce populations of detrimental soil organisms,providing nitrogen through biological fixation for weed suppression . Interest in the use of green manure’s biomass has revived because of their role in improving soil quality and their beneficial N and non-N rotation effects . Because of its nitrogen fixation potential, legumes represent an alternative for supplying nutrients, substituting or complementing mineral fertilization in cropping systems involving green manuring. This practice causes changes in soil physical, chemical and biological characteristics, bringing benefits to the subsequent crop both in small- scale cropping systems and in larger commercial areas such as those grown with sugarcane. The area cropped with sugar canein Brazil shows rapid expansion, with most of the increase for ethanol production. The area cultivated with sugar- cane is now 9.6 Mha, with an increase of 5 Mha from 2000 and over 8.6 Mha of fresh sugarcane harvested per year. Sugarcane crops in Brazil are replanted every five to ten years. In southeastern Brazil, the interval between the last sugarcane harvest and the new plantings occurs during the spring-summer season, under high temperature and heavy rainfall. According to the Köppen climate classification, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil has Cwa climate, i.e., humid sub- tropical, with dry winter and an average temperature in the coldest month below 18°C and the hottest month, exceeding 22°C. Green manure fertilization of the soil with legumes has been recommended before a sugarcane field is re- planted.

This practice does not imply on losing the crop- ping season, does not interfere with sugarcane germination, and provides increases in sugarcane and sugar yield, at least during two consecutive cuts.Additionally, it protects the soil against erosion, prevents weed spreading and reduces nematode populations. Legumes usually accumulate large quantities of N and K, the nutrients which are taken up in the highest amounts by the sugarcane plants. The use of the 15N isotope provides precise information about the dynamics of the nitrogen in the soil-plant system. Residue incorporation studies of legumes using 15N label indicate that 10% to 34% of the legume N can be recovered in the subsequent rye or wheat crop, 42% in rice, 24% recovery from Velvet bean by corn crop, around 15% of N recovery from sunn hemp by corn plants in no-till system, 30% by maize , and 5% of N recovery from sunn hemp by sugarcane , and ranged from 19% to 21% when the recovery was observed from sunn hemp by two sugarcane harvest . The authors suggested that legume residue decomposition provided long-term supply of N for the subsequent crops, by not supplying the nutrient as an immediate source.

An Irish study conducted on 211 adolescents aged between 12 and 15 years has revealed that those adolescents who had experienced childhood trauma were almost five times more likely to use cannabis than those who had experienced trauma. In addition, subjects who had experienced childhood trauma are also five times more likely to develop psychotic symptoms .The researchers also found that the joint presence of cannabis use and childhood trauma increased the likelihood of psychotic symptoms in adolescence to a much greater extent than would be expected if each risk factor was working independently.In Australia, a 20-year follow-up study in young adults exposed to childhood trauma revealed that exposure to multiple traumas, rather than a single major trauma, increases the risk of later psychosis .Based on the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey conducted in England in2007 among 7403 subjects whose mean age was 51.12 years , a multivariate analysis demonstrated that those who had experienced non-consensualsex in childhood were over six times more likely to have had a diagnosis of psychosis compared with those who had not experienced this trauma.

Individuals with a history of non-consensual sexual experience under 16years and cannabis use were over seven times more likely to have been diagnosed with psychosis compared with those without these experiences .The multivariate analysis also indicated that subjects who were unemployed,depressed and who experienced sexual trauma after the age of 16 years were more likely to have had a diagnosis of psychosis . Researchers outlined the fact that the experience of non-consensualsex before the age of 16 years was independently predictive of psychosis diagnosis no matter the presence or absence of cannabis consumption.They suggested that childhood trauma may be one of the more prevailing environmental agents in psychosis onset and development and that cannabis use among individuals diagnosed with psychosis may be attributable, in some cases,to their experiences of childhood trauma . The authors also mentioned that those individuals who experienced both childhood sexual abuse and cannabis use, but who experienced their sexual trauma before they began consuming cannabis, were over four times more likely to have a diagnosis of psychosis.

Alternatively,victims of childhood trauma may simply initiate and continue to use cannabis in a similar way to non-victims but could experience psychosis because an existing emotional,psychological and/or physical vulnerability, potentially attributable to their trauma, has been exacerbated .Finally, the authors concluded that the interaction between cannabis use and childhood trauma suggests that being exposed to these two risk factors acts synergistically in the onset of psychosis and that childhood trauma may advance existing gene-environment conceptualizations of the cannabis-psychosis link. Researchers suggested that the psychosis-inducing effects of cannabis are moderated by an early experience of trauma and that a cross-sensitization between stress and cannabis is responsible in shaping the risk of psychotic outcomes. The possible mechanism by which stress or cannabis use impact on psychosis risk is a sensitization involving an increase of the dopaminergic signaling in the mesolimbic system.

Hyperdopaminergia may be associated with psychosis and the interaction between early life trauma and cannabis may increase the risk for psychosis by bringing about enduring sensitization to dopamine agonists.Finally, the authors stated that their work is the first to demonstrate that even on-severe physical trauma can interact with cannabis on psychosis risk .Their results confirm earlier findings that both cannabis and trauma not only affect psychotic illness but also impact on the broader extended psychosis phenotype in the general population, which represents behavior expression of liability to psychotic disorders . However, they outline that their results do not provide information about to what degree the interaction between cannabis and mal treatment contributes to the onset of new psychotic symptoms or to the persistence of existing symptoms.

Researchers emphasized that there was a strong evidence that childhood trauma was correlated with an increased odds of later life events and cannabis use,and that there was evidence for synergistic effects of trauma and more tentatively recent cannabis use on odds of psychotic experiences, such that the odds were greatest in those exposed to trauma and either life events or cannabis in the past year. They also outlined that the impact of both life events,particularly recent events, and cannabis use on the likelihood of psychotic experiences depends, to a certain degree, on prior exposure to physical and sexual abuse. This is consistent with the hypothesis that childhood trauma creates in some individuals a vulnerability for psychotic experiences which unfolds itself in the event of exposure to further risk factors such as cannabis consumption .

Increased synthesisand bioaccumulation of such carboxylic acids have also been reported when C4 perennial grasses are subject to abiotic stress such as drought.This finding indicates opportunity for direct isolation of succinic acid as a coproduct from biomass feed stocks without typical lignocellulosic hydrolysis and upgrading from glucose in competition for use with primary biofuels .In order to investigate this potential, the objectives of this research were to: 1)evaluate succinic acid content and total yield across candidate lignocellulosic feed stocks under field conditions, and 2) characterize the impact of deficit irrigation upon succinic acid bioaccumulation across candidate lignocellulosic feeds tocks under greenhouse conditions. Pearl millet is an annual diploid . It originated in northern Africa in an area extending from western Sudan to Senegal . Pearl millet is mainly used as a grain crop in India, Pakistan, and Africa; however, its main use in the USA, Australia, and parts of South America is as forage. There is an increasing interest in planting this grass as a grain crop to feed livestock in the USA . Although grain production of pearl millethybrid is not comparable to sorghum and maize hybrids, as a forage crop its yield can exceed sorghum and maize. Pearl millet is also more drought tolerant and suited to marginal lands than maize .

One study comparing forage yield among sorghum, millet and corn cultivars found greater biomass yield in pearl millet than sorghum cultivars Jumbo, Speed feed, and Sugar graze . Sugarcane is a perennial grass cultured mainly for sucrose production.As a perennial bioenergy crop derived from sugarcane, energycane is derived from sugarcane but selected for greater fiber concentration, biomass yields, and cold tolerance . Improved cold tolerance allows energy cane to be grown in areas further north than sugarcane in the USA . More importantly, its improved adaptation to marginal land gives it more potential as a lignocellulosic biomass feedstock.Biomass yields of energy cane are comparable to other lignocellulose feedstocks . Sorghum is an important crop used mainly for grain and forage production, and it is now being evaluated as a bioenergy crop . Its diverse utilization, including bioenergy potential of grain sorghum, sweet sorghum and high biomass cellulosicsorghum , is significant . Among many traits of foragesorghum that may impact forage quality, one trait is controlled by brown midrib mutants and influences forage quality.Chemically induced BMR mutants in sorghum were first induced in 1978 and can reduce lignin concentration as much as 51% in stems and 25% in leaves. With reduced lignin concentration,BMR sorghum cultivars have greater forage digestibility .

More importantly from a bioenergy perspective, this attribute could improve overall cellulosic ethanol conversion efficiencies when recalcitrance caused by lignin is mitigated. Biomass and estimated ethanol yields among sweet sorghum, BMRsorghum cultivars, and several perennial grasses indicated that the greatest biomass yield and ethanol production can be achieved from sweet sorghum . In the greenhouse trial, succinic acid concentrations did not vary across irrigation treatments. However, feedstock entries differed in their response to irrigation levels. PMN and Merkeron had the highest succinic acid concentration underdeficit irrigation, while the non-BMR annual sorghum had the lowest succinicacid concentration. Under non-deficit irrigation, Merkeron,PEPU 09FL03, PEPU 09FL01 and switch grass had the highest succinic acid concentrations,and the BMR annual sorghum had the lowest concentration . Hemp sesbania, avigorous, nodulating, epigeal, leguminous weed in soybean , cotton and rice , can attain a height of 3 m and was deemed one of the 10 most troublesome weeds in the southern U.S..It can reduce crop yield through shading and competition and has high reproductive capacity. No pre or post-emergent herbicide can provide season-long control of hemp sesbania.This weed exhibits some tolerance to glyphosate, but glufosinate can provide effective control .

Glufosinate is the ammonium salt of phosphinothricin, which is the active ingredient of bialaphos derived from non-phytopathogenic species in the genusStreptomyces .Biological weed control using plant pathogens has received attention by academic and industrial researchers for quite some time.Colletotrichum truncatum is a plant pathogenic fungus with bioherbicidal activity for controlling hemp sesbania. However, as with most foliar pathogens, spores of this fungus require sustained free-moisture,or a dew period to promote spore germination, establish infection and cause disease . Hemp sesbania was effectively controlled in soybean by C.truncatum conidia formulated in an invert emulsion.Greenhouse experiments showed that oil-in-water emulsions of unrefined corn oil and C. truncatum spore suspensions could reduce the dew period requirements for maximum weed infection and mortality of hemp sesbania, and thus delay the requirement for free-moisture.

Hemp has the greatest economical potential if grown both for seeds and stems as residual agricultural products .Hempseed contains more than 30% oil of which more than 80% is polyunsaturated fatty acids . They are present in a ratio of about 3:1, considered optimal in healthy human adipose tissue , and apparently unique among common plant oils . This preferred omega-6/omega-3 ratio was successfully utilized in animal feed to manipulate the fatty acid pattern in bovine adipose tissue and eggs . There are various benefits attributed to omega-3 and include anti-cancer,anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombosis properties,stimulation of general metabolism and promotion of burning fat .Hempseed oil is commonly extracted by solvents and, the resulting by-product, is known as hempseed meal which has good protein level ranging from 30% to 40% in dry matter of flour depending upon the variety of hemp used .

HSM is a rich source of protein and energy and can represent a nutritious feed supplement for livestock or used for production of a high-protein flour.Identification and characterization of hempseed proteins showed that edestin, rich in valuable amino acids,constituted the main protein component in isolate hempseed protein . Another protein structure, rich in methionine and cystine, was found in hemp seeds and subsequently characterized as an albumin protein family member. Numerous factors are known to influence the nutritional quality of plant proteins, as measured by their amino acid composition and digestibility. The amino acid composition may be affected by genotypic variability or agronomic conditions such as soil fertility and postharvest processing that alters the ratio of seed components. The digestibility of proteins may be affected by protein structure, the presence of antinutritional compounds and high temperature processing.HSM contains antinutritional compounds that need to be considered when feeding this product. In hemp seed,among a vast number of antinutritional compounds, phytate has raised more attention.Phytic acid is the main organic form of phosphorus present in plant seeds.

Its presence reduces protein digestibility and increases the excretion of endogenous nitrogen, amino acids and minerals, in particular bivalent cations. Another nutritionally important group of compounds are the condensed tannins. Tannins are known to negatively affect nitrogenous compounds uptake, absorption of minerals, and reduce weight gain and feed consumption intake in broiler chicks . In the case of sorghum, 1% of increased tannin content reduced the dietary energy value by 10%. Being protein precipitants, the tannins form complexes with feed proteins and endogenous enzymes. Hence, the weight of the pancreas increases if the feed contains high levels of tannins. Other deleterious compounds considered by animal nutritionists are the saponins.These substances consist of a sugar moiety usually containing one sugar , glycosidically linked to a hydrophobic aglycone which may be in nature triterpenoid or steroid.Dietary saponins depressed growth, feed consumption and egg production in poultry.These negative effects have been ascribed to several properties of saponins such as reduced feed intake caused by the astringent and irritating taste of saponins,reduction in intestinal motility and reduction in protein digestibility, probably due to the formation of sparingly digestible saponin-protein complexes.

Moreover,saponins have pronounced haemolytic properties and are responsible for bloat in ruminats. Trypsin inhibitors are considered one of the most important antinutritional factors and are found in many species of graminaceous, cruciferous and leguminosae. In literature, there are few data about the trypsin inhibitor activities in HSM . Lastly, the metabolism of some substances contained in flour may lead to the release of toxic products .In the present study, HSM was evaluated as protein source and for the presence of the main antinutritional compounds . Two groups of hemp varieties were used. The first group was consisting of dioecious varieties and the second group of monoecious varieties . The dioecious and monoecious hemp varieties have strong differences in the flowering time and seed filling. The characterization of these biochemical features will help to better understand the nutritional quality of HSM and its use as feed ingredient. Bioherbicides may offer alternatives to the control of weeds with synthetic compounds including the use of plant pathogens as bioherbicides.

Results from our laboratory demonstrated that the bioherbicidal fungus, Myrothecium verrucaria Ditmar: Fr. , can control several weeds from various families. A substantial portion of this research has been devoted to the potential of MV to control several economically important weeds including, hemp sesbania , sicklepod ,kudzu and glyphosate-resistant and -susceptible Palmeramaranth .Kudzu is an exotic invasive weed in the southeastern US that is difficult to control with current commercial herbicides and this weed has had a devastating impact on forests, rights of ways, etc. . Kudzu, a perennial leguminous vine native to eastern Asia, was introduced into the US in the late 1800’s and now occurs from Florida to New York, westward to central Oklahoma and Texas, with heavy infestations in Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi.

This particular study, which measured the prevalence of illicit drug use, concluded that heterosexual transgender individuals had a lower risk of use relative to their TGD SM counterparts. While heterosexuality has been widely accepted as a protective factor for cisgender populations, there is effectively no research examining the impact of sexual identity within the TGD community. Additionally, visual conformity represents a TGD-specific correlate that likely influences the TGD community’s predisposition to various forms of addiction. In fact, one study in particular determined that low levels of visual conformity increased one’s odds of nicotine use . The same study also determined that participants who had disclosed their trans identity were more likely to report nicotine use. Expanding the stratification of TGD to include dimensions other than gender identity could pinpoint a new group of highly at-risk TGD individuals that have been overlooked by traditional SM categorizations. It is important to note that one of the predominant reasons that TGD individuals experience higher rates of mental health challenges, addictions, and other presumptively negative outcomes is that of minority stress and stigmatization.

Living in a world where one experiences discrimination, harassment, and violence at interpersonal, institutional, and even ideological levels can result in TGD individuals seeking out additional coping mechanisms as compared to their cisgender counterparts . Simply being TGD by itself likely does not indicate an increase predisposition to addictive behavior; however, living in a hurtful and traumatizing world can, indeed, result in such behaviors. Understanding how to support individuals within this framework is key for clinicians in engaging their TGD clients and patients around addiction . It should also be noted that the vast majority of scales and instruments that are used to assess for addiction-related behaviors have not been validated on TGD participants, and rather, are often validated solely on cisgender individuals. In order to ensure these scales accurately measure what they purport to measure, future research must be conducted to norm these existing instruments on this population and/or create new instruments that can accurately measure addictive behaviors among this population. Similarly, the criteria for viewing some addictive behaviors can be viewed as transphobic, such as gendered rates for what is considered binge drinking, when there is no number of drinks noted for nonbinary individuals, and transgender women might be significantly taller and/or weigh more than cisgender women . Both research and practice must take these challenges into account when engaging TGD individuals.

The consumption of illicit drugs represents an important public health problem worldwide , contributing to morbidity and mortality . Nowadays, Europe has one of the highest percentages of students who reported lifetime use of any illicit drug, with 29% in the Czech Republic, followed by 28% in Italy. Besides, the most widely used illicit drug at least once in their life in Europe was cannabis , followed by other illicit substances , such as ecstasy, amphetamines, cocaine, and LSD, among others . According to the survey on alcohol and other drugs in Spain , cannabis is by far the most widespread in Spain, obtaining in 2019 the highest value in its history , followed by cocaine . In the population aged 15–34, the prevalence of illegal substance uses at least once in their life, in Spain, were cannabis , cocaine , ecstasy , and amphetamines . The use of these substances is associated with multiple consequences, including traffic accidents, violence, infectious diseases, mental disorder, impaired psychosocial development, and suicide, between others, particularly in the young population. Among the likely contributors to the elevation of drug use during adolescence and in young people are maturational changes . In this line, in a study conducted in Spanish adolescents, the role of self-esteem and selfefficacy was highlighted, as was the importance of increasing the risk perception.

Besides, the authors highlighted the social influence of the family and the people around them on binge drinking, highlighting the importance of increasing parents’ awareness factors, communication skills, adequate family influence, parental supervision, and control . In addition, some authors also proposed that family environment and family support are key elements when starting to use drugs . Moreover, there are studies that consider people from dysfunctional families to be at higher risk of consumption . On the other hand, other authors highlight the importance of peer influences . A weak relationship has been observed between gender and consumption with a higher prevalence of drug use among men in particular, with the exception of sedative hypnotics, where use is higher among women . Furthermore, previous studies have shown that marital status may be related to substance use, although with mixed results . Only some of the studies performed to date have taken the age of onset of consumption into account, despite the importance of this variable.

A large number of studies claim that the likelihood of risky consumption is higher among rural adolescents, compared to the ones living in urban areas . However, other studies agree with the results obtained in the present survey, which shows a greater consumption of substances in adolescents living in urban settings . As it was already mentioned, maybe cities had more open establishments and people had more options to acquire substances during the lockdown period. Our study is in line with other investigations showing a connection between lower parental education and higher prevalence of consumption . Indeed, we found that adolescents with parents with primary education were more likely to use substances than adolescents with parents with secondary and university education. Alcohol was the most consumed substance before the lockdown, and the one that underwent the greatest reduction during the COVID-19 lockdown period. In the same direction of other studies that identified an association between the socioeconomic status and substance abuse, our findings show that adolescents with a medium or high SEP drank more frequently and with a riskier pattern, in comparison to adolescents with a low SEP, both before and after confinement.

Our data reveal a notable decrease in the prevalence of binge drinking and hazardous drinking during the lockdown period in all groups, objectifying the impact of restrictions and social distancing on adolescents. In agreement with other surveys, we found that younger adolescents drank less alcohol during confifinement. This might be due to the closure of leisure establishments and the suspension of school classes, that prevented social meetings and reduced the opportunities to access psychoactive substances . Furthermore, parental disapproval towards binge drinking could explain the reduction of risky consumption patterns . The hazardous consumption of cannabis showed the lowest prevalence among the different substances before confinement, and its prevalence was even lower during the COVID-19 lockdown period. Under normal conditions, adolescents perceive that accessibility to cannabis is high, even though cannabis is an illegal substance. However, we believe that COVID-19 confinement and the restrictions to mobility and social contact could have increased the obstacles for the illicit trade of the substance, thus reducing its availability and accessibility . Additionally, spending more time with the family, together with parental disagreement on the use of cannabis, could have contributed to diminish its risky consumption.Our results agree with previous studies showing that people with a lower SEP and those who live in urban areas have higher opportunities to consume illicit substances as cannabis.

Indeed, we observed a maintenance in the hazardous consumption of cannabis among people living in disadvantaged neighborhoods. We think that this might be explained by the frequent breaches of the confifinement restrictions and the easy of trafficking and acquisition of the substance in these areas. While some groups decreased their daily consumption , others even increased it . At these ages, we fifind a large part of social smokers, who smoke tobacco in social settings and with the group. The COVID-19 pandemic led to restrictions of social meetings, spending more time with parents at home, and in some cases the information about the worsening of respiratory problems that COVID could generate in smokers increased the health risk awareness , and could explain the observed decrease. Moreover, a family attitude toward the tobacco with parental disapproval towards its consumption at home could have contributed to this reduction. On the contrary,the increased consumption in some groups could be a way to alleviate negative emotions related to COVID-19, beat boredom, and overcome the lack of social relations . Additionally, some parents may have been using tobacco to cope with the situation, making it more accessible to their sons, or maybe being more permissive and allowing them to smoke at home.

The results of this study provide the first data about the effect of COVID-19 confinement on consumption of legal and illicit substances among teenagers from Central Catalonia. The measures of social distancing forced adolescents to spend more time at home with family members, and less in social and leisure environments. This reduced the opportunities of engaging in binge drinking and the consumption of alcohol, cannabis and tobacco. However, in spite of the general tendency to decrease, a higher risky consumption of substances was observed in older adolescents attending advanced courses. We believe that, by reducing risky consumption among teenagers, confifinement could reduce the probability of future related problems. To confirm this hypothesis, further follow up of the cohort is warranted once the pandemic situation has passed and restrictions about mobility and social contacts had been overcome.